The use of animals in biomedical research.

 Reduction – ethical obligation to use only the number of animals necessary and avoid unnecessary duplication (section titles: reduction and strategy in research, the problem of variance, the design and analysis of experiments, the sources of physiological variance, the control of phenotype, the control of the proximate, especially behavioural environment)  Refinement – ethical obligation to improve the acquisition, housing, care, and procedure used with animals to reduce any potential pain and/or distress (section titles: neutral and stressful studies, generally superimposed procedures, the choice of procedures, the choice of species, a concrete problem: experimental psychiatry and the humane study of fear)